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Volume LVII, Number 1

Holly R. Zink, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Jennifer Goldman, MD
Children’s Mercy Kansas City

Matthew W. Mosconi, PhD
The University of Kansas

Jacob Sosnoff, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Lisa M. Harlan-Williams, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Nikki Nollen, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Abstract

The continued advancement of impactful clinical translational research is critically dependent on the effective cultivation of future researchers through robust mentorship and structured career development support. Despite the recognized importance of mentorship in advancing clinical translational research, a gap remains in our understanding of the specific dimensions that contribute to effective mentor training. This scoping review examines the dimensions of effective mentor training through key themes: Competency-Based Mentorship, Cultural Responsiveness, Evidence-Based Curriculum, and Impact on Research Productivity and Personal Development. The review focuses on studies published in peer-reviewed journals that explore mentorship challenges, barriers, and effective practices. Following a comprehensive search in PubMed and MEDLINE, 64 articles between 2001 and 2024 met the inclusion criteria for analysis. Findings emphasize the importance of structured, competency-based training in enhancing mentorship effectiveness, supported by evidence-based tools and continuous feedback mechanisms. The review highlights the significance of cultural responsiveness in creating inclusive mentorship environments and the need for ongoing evaluation to improve mentor-mentee interactions. The analysis also reveals that virtual mentoring can offer flexible and equitable access to resources. Overall, the review provides a thorough overview of current mentorship practices, illustrating the multifaceted nature of effective clinical translational research mentorship and offering insights into strategies for developing successful clinical translational research mentorship programs.

Keywords: research mentorship; competency-based training; evidence-based mentorship; culturally-responsive training; mentor-mentee dynamics

Introduction

Clinical translational research mentorship differentiates itself from traditional research mentorship by its emphasis on expediting the journey from scientific discovery to tangible patient care improvements, integrating cross-disciplinary knowledge with practical strategies to accelerate the translation of research findings into real-world clinical applications. Clinical translational research mentorship is a cornerstone of professional and academic development, providing essential guidance, support, and knowledge transfer across various disciplines. As the demands and complexities of academic and research environments evolve, so does the need for robust mentor training and development programs. Given the importance of mentorship, there has been an increase in scope and magnitude of scholarly work dedicated to effective mentorship. This scoping literature review explores the myriad dimensions of mentor training, delving into the strategies, frameworks, and outcomes that define effective clinical translational research mentorship.

Given the complexities of mentorship in clinical trial research, we organized the review based on several defining themes that emerged post hoc after retrieving the relevant articles. We begin with the Effectiveness of Competency-Based Mentorship theme, which outlines the necessary skills and competencies for mentors to effectively support their mentees. The Cultural Responsiveness in Mentorship theme addresses the critical need for mentorship programs that are inclusive and culturally aware. The theme of Evidence-Based Curriculum examines methodologies that utilize empirical evidence to refine and enhance mentoring practices. The theme of Impact on Research Productivity and Personal Development explores the interpersonal aspects of mentoring, focusing on how the interactions and mutual influences between mentors and mentees shape their professional growth and development. Finally, the Research and Evaluation of Mentorship theme emphasizes the importance of continuous feedback and the implementation of data-driven strategies to improve mentor-mentee interactions. Through this review, we present a deeper understanding of the multifaceted nature of clinical translational research mentorship and the essential elements that contribute to its effectiveness in various contexts.

Methods

A review of the available published reports describing mentorship in clinical translational career development was conducted. Between June 3 to June 28, 2024, a trained research medical writer searched for studies in PubMed and MEDLINE using combinations of the keywords "Mentorship," "Research Training," "Career Development," "Clinical and Translational Science," "Faculty Development," "Underrepresented Minorities in Research," and "Mentoring Competency". Search terms were applied across titles, abstracts, and indexed keywords and were iteratively refined to capture literature relevant to mentor training and career development in clinical and translational research contexts. The search strategy was designed to balance comprehensiveness with relevance for an applied research administration audience. The journals Clinical and Translational Science, CBE—Life Sciences Education, Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, Academic Medicine, and Advances in Health Sciences Education were most fruitful. Filters were used to ensure only peer-reviewed publications were selected. The search included articles published between January 2001 and June 2024, reflecting the emergence and evolution of structured mentorship training within the clinical and translational research workforce.

Articles were included in the review if the study (1) reported on clinical translational research mentorship or career development; (2) specified challenges, barriers, lessons learned, or guidelines for translational mentorship; and (3) was published in a peer-reviewed journal. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses on related topics were excluded from the scoping review to avoid duplicate studies. However, individual studies listed in these excluded systematic reviews and meta-analyses were tagged for further review. Articles that focused on clinical support staff were excluded from this review to focus on the clinical translational investigator pathway. Non-English articles were also excluded.

The title and abstract screening confirmed the included studies described mentorship in clinical and translational career development. Additional criteria included articles that specified mentorship challenges, barriers, lessons learned, promising mentorship practices, or facilitators for working with a clinical translational research mentorship program affiliated with an academic institution. A full-text review of the included abstracts was conducted to ensure that the articles aligned with the established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Those that did not fit the criteria were excluded. Data extraction was completed with the final set of articles. Extracted data included study design, population, mentorship focus, training approach, and reported outcomes, which informed the thematic synthesis presented in the Results. Consistent with scoping review methodology, studies were not formally appraised for quality but were examined for relevance and contribution to the mentorship literature. Collectively, the included studies reflect substantial methodological heterogeneity, spanning qualitative interviews, mixed-methods program evaluations, quantitative surveys, and descriptive program reports, underscoring the diverse ways mentorship has been examined across clinical and translational research settings.

Results

In total, 564 articles were identified from the database searches. After the removal of duplicates and abstract screening, 416 articles were deemed irrelevant, and 142 articles were selected for full-text assessment. In total, 78 articles were excluded using the following exclusion criteria: (1) The article was a literature review, commentary, or letter to the editor; (2) The article did not specify challenges, barriers, lessons learned, or guidelines for translational mentorship or career development; (3) The study focused on a population other than research investigators, including clinical support staff. Thus, 64 articles met the eligibility criteria and were extracted and included in this review. All articles were published between 2001 and 2024. Studies used qualitative (n=8, 12.5%), mixed methods (n=22, 34.4%), programmatic/reports (n=11, 17.2%), quantitative (n=17, 26.6%), and literature review (n=6, 9.4%) methods. (See supplementary Table 1 in the Appendix for key attributes of the identified studies. The table provides study-level detail on methods, populations, and key findings to support cross-study comparison and complement the thematic synthesis presented below.)

Figure 1. Citation network, visual representation of the keyword co-occurrence in the 64 articles selected for full-text assessment.

Challenges and Promising Practices for Career Development Mentorship

Theme 1: Effectiveness of Competency-Based Mentorship

Competency-based training is essential for developing effective research mentors, equipping them with the necessary skills to support their mentees. Pfund et al. (2006) established the foundation by emphasizing the importance of structured training programs in professional skills for mentors. Anderson et al. (2012) built on this by introducing evidence-based approaches for evaluating and providing feedback to mentors, highlighting the need for continuous improvement and regular assessment aligned with the competencies first identified by Pfund et al. (2006).

Abedin et al. (2012) refined the understanding of mentor competencies, identifying six essential areas: maintaining effective communication, aligning expectations, assessing understanding, fostering independence, and promoting professional development. These competencies offer a comprehensive framework for mentor training programs. Fleming et al. (2013) further validated the Mentoring Competency Assessment (MCA) tool, providing a reliable method for evaluating and improving mentorship, thus supporting the competencies framework by Abedin et al. (2012). Shortly after, Pfund et al. (2014) conducted randomized controlled trials, demonstrating significant improvements in mentors' competencies, particularly in communication and fostering independence. Their studies offer empirical support for the benefits of formalized mentor training, reinforcing earlier theoretical frameworks.

More recently, Alexander et al. (2023) explored the impact of varied mentee experiences and formal mentorship training, finding that mentors trained to work with mentees exhibit higher competency levels. Asquith et al. (2024) focused on the sustainable implementation and evaluation of mentorship education, emphasizing the integration of mentorship competencies into training programs and continuous evaluation of their effectiveness. This aligns with the competencies identified by Abedin et al. (2012) and expands on them by proposing strategies for sustainable implementation and ongoing assessment. These studies underscore the importance of competency-based training in developing effective research mentors. They highlighted foundational competencies, the impact of formal training, and the need for continuous evaluation and improvement of mentorship programs. This body of work provides a framework for developing and implementing effective mentor training programs, enhancing the quality of mentorship in clinical translational research. However, more rigorously and prospectively designed studies of the effectiveness of competency-based mentorship are needed.

Competency-based mentorship focuses on developing specific skills and competencies that mentors need to effectively guide their mentees, often through structured training and assessment, while evidence-based approaches emphasize using research and empirical evidence to inform and improve mentoring practices, ensuring that strategies are grounded in proven methods and outcomes. Competency-based mentorship aims to build and evaluate mentor capabilities, whereas evidence-based approaches strive to apply scientifically validated techniques to enhance mentoring effectiveness.

Subtheme: Mentor and Mentee Relationship Dynamics

The dynamics of mentor and mentee relationships are crucial to the success of mentorship programs in academic and research settings. Silet et al. (2010) highlighted the importance of structured mentoring programs for clinical translational research scholars, emphasizing that clearly defined roles and expectations are fundamental to fostering productive mentor-mentee relationships. Their national survey identified key components of successful mentoring programs, such as regular communication, mutual respect, and a shared understanding of goals and expectations. These elements help build trust and ensure that both mentors and mentees are committed to the mentoring process.

Huskins et al. (2011) dove deeper into the mentor-mentee relationship by focusing on aligning expectations. They argued that misaligned expectations can lead to conflicts and dissatisfaction, ultimately undermining the mentoring relationship. Their study proposed a framework for identifying and aligning expectations early in the mentoring relationship. This framework includes explicit discussions about goals, roles, and responsibilities and regular check-ins to reassess and realign expectations as needed. By doing so, mentors and mentees can develop a more collaborative and supportive relationship.

In comparison, while Silet et al. (2010) and Huskins et al. (2011) focused on the structural and expectation management aspects of mentor-mentee relationships, Pfund et al. (2022) highlighted the importance of cultural awareness and inclusivity. All three studies underscore the necessity of clear communication and mutual understanding in mentorship. They further extend the discussion to include the need for cultural competence, highlighting that effective mentorship must adapt to the varied needs of mentees to be truly successful. Together, these studies provided a comprehensive view of the dynamics involved in mentor-mentee relationships. They collectively suggest that successful mentorship requires not only well-defined structures and aligned expectations but also an awareness and responsiveness to the cultural contexts of mentees. By addressing these factors, mentorship programs can create more effective and supportive environments that enhance the professional development and satisfaction of both mentors and mentees.

Theme 2: Cultural Responsiveness in Mentorship

Cultural responsiveness in mentorship programs is vital for creating equitable and supportive environments, especially for individuals from underrepresented backgrounds. Estrada et al. (2016) emphasized that inclusive environments in STEM enhance the persistence of underrepresented minority students by providing supportive and culturally aware mentorship. McGee (2016) built on this by highlighting the need for mentorship programs that address mentee needs to foster equity in professional development.

Byars-Winston et al. (2011) demonstrated that mentor training in cultural competence significantly improved mentors' ability to support mentees. Similarly, Black et al. (2022) demonstrated that such training enhances mentors' cultural awareness, leading to more effective and tailored support. McGee et al. (2023) and Williams et al. (2023) further underscored the benefits of cultural-focused mentorship in enhancing mentee satisfaction and professional growth. While Sancheznieto and Byars-Winston (2021) argued that organizational support is crucial for promoting an inclusive academic medicine environment, highlighting institutions' role in providing resources and training for mentors.

Pfund et al. (2022) explored the concept of culturally responsive mentorship, which addresses mentees' varied backgrounds and needs. Their study evaluated a mentorship education program to enhance mentors' cultural awareness and responsiveness. The findings suggested that mentors trained in cultural responsiveness are better equipped to understand and support their mentees' unique experiences and challenges. This, in turn, fosters a more inclusive and supportive mentoring environment. Pfund et al. (2022) emphasized that recognizing and valuing cultural responsiveness within the mentor-mentee relationship is essential for building trust and ensuring that all mentees feel supported and valued.

Subtheme: Support for Underrepresented Groups

Support for underrepresented groups ensures equitable opportunities in clinical translational mentorship programs. Hemming et al. (2019) stressed the importance of tailored mentorship programs for new investigators from underrepresented backgrounds, offering personalized support to navigate career challenges. Norris et al. (2020) highlighted the NIH Building Infrastructure (BUILD) Initiative’s success in fostering community and belonging, essential for retaining underrepresented students in biomedical research.

Jones et al. (2017) revealed that cultural-focused grant-writing training improves the skills and confidence of underrepresented researchers. Guerrero et al. (2017) emphasized the effectiveness of the National Research Mentoring Network (NRMN)'s collaborative approach in supporting underrepresented researchers through multi-method interventions. Estape et al. (2018) discussed the importance of culturally tailored programs like the Hispanic Clinical and Translational Research Education and Career Development (HCTRECD) Program in promoting Hispanic researchers' success. Ellinas et al. (2019) addressed gender-specific barriers in academic medicine, advocating for mentorship programs that provide targeted support for women. Hardy et al. (2022) showed that Individual Development Plans (IDPs) effectively support underrepresented trainees by offering structured, personalized guidance. Bates et al. (2023) highlighted the need for targeted mentorship to overcome barriers early-career women face in pediatric psychology. In summary, these studies collectively highlight the importance of integrating cultural awareness and tailored support in mentorship programs to address the unique needs of underrepresented groups, ultimately fostering a more inclusive and equitable research environment.

Theme 3: Evidence-Based Systematic Curriculum

Clinical translational mentorship programs are vital for nurturing research careers. Balster et al. (2010) highlighted the "Entering Research" course, emphasizing community-building and foundational skill development for undergraduate researchers. Pfund et al. (2013) discussed a mentor training curriculum for clinical translational researchers, advocating for systematic training to enhance mentoring skills. Sorkness et al. (2013) focused on the University of Wisconsin's mentor training, stressing institutional support and ongoing development. Butler et al. (2017) presented the Health Equity Leadership Institute, which integrates mentorship with leadership training for addressing health disparities. Montgomery (2017) outlined a mentoring roadmap for strategic career advancement, emphasizing career development and support networks. Spencer et al. (2018) and Jenkins et al. (2020) explored scalable mentor training and community-based research, respectively, highlighting the importance of infrastructure and collaboration. House et al. (2020) described the NRMN Master Facilitators Initiative, focusing on building a practice community to expand mentorship program implementation. These studies collectively stress the need for structured curricula, ongoing mentor development, leadership training, community engagement, and scalable program implementation in mentorship.

Subtheme: Evidence-Based Approaches and Feedback

Evidence-based approaches and feedback mechanisms are critical for enhancing mentorship quality in research settings. Burnham and Fleming (2011) highlighted the importance of selecting mentors with both expertise and interpersonal skills, establishing a foundation for structured mentorship programs. Building on this, Burnham et al. (2011) proposed ongoing support and development through regular training and feedback sessions, emphasizing continuous skill improvement driven by regular assessment. Anderson et al. (2012) introduced new methodologies for evaluating and giving feedback to mentors, using specific feedback tools to measure key competencies and enhance mentorship quality. Fleming et al. (2013) validated the previously mentioned Mentoring Competency Assessment (MCA) tool, offering a standardized way to measure and improve mentoring practices. Hyun et al. (2022) further validated the MCA tool, confirming its effectiveness across different contexts and reinforcing the use of evidence-based tools in mentorship programs. Together, these studies underscore the importance of integrating evidence-based approaches and structured feedback mechanisms, ensuring mentors receive precise, actionable feedback to continuously improve their skills, leading to better outcomes for research mentees.

Subtheme: Virtual and Online Mentoring

Virtual mentoring for clinical translational scholars offers flexibility and broadens access to career development resources. McDaniels et al. (2016) examined synchronous online facetime, emphasizing interactive online environments for community-building. Hall et al. (2018) discussed the Health Equity Learning Collaborative, a virtual platform supporting early-stage investigators with grant funding. Similarly, Stephenson-Hunter et al. (2021) evaluated a virtual summer mentorship program for underrepresented students during COVID-19, finding that online mentoring enhances self-efficacy. Rogers et al. (2022) compared face-to-face and online mentor training, concluding that well-designed online training can match traditional methods in effectiveness. These studies reveal that interactive online environments and virtual communities can effectively support mentorship, enhance accessibility, and provide equitable opportunities.

Theme 4: Impact on Research Productivity and Personal Development

Career development and research training are pivotal for advancing clinical translational researchers' careers. Robinson et al. (2016) emphasized that institutional support, mentorship, and professional development opportunities are crucial for clinical translational investigators' career success. Brownson et al. (2021) highlighted that mentored training in dissemination and implementation science not only enhances research skills but also offers networking opportunities crucial for long-term success. Zakaras et al. (2021) identified barriers faced by women junior faculty and advocated for targeted mentorship and policy changes. Cheng and Hackworth (2021) proposed a mentorship model based on adult learning theory, stressing clarity, communication, and collaboration for early-career researchers. Vaughan et al. (2021) discussed the Rockefeller Team Science Leadership training, noting that leadership skills development is key to enhancing researchers' ability to lead multidisciplinary teams.

Self-efficacy and identity development are essential for researchers' career growth. McGee and Keller (2007) found that self-efficacy, bolstered by early research exposure and mentorship, is crucial for persistence in research careers. Bakken et al. (2010) showed that educational interventions can boost self-efficacy among female biomedical scientists, helping to address the gender gap. Branchaw et al. (2010) described the "Entering Research" course, which enhances self-efficacy and research identity by providing a structured research experience. Williams et al. (2016) highlighted the role of career coaches in supporting racial and ethnic minority PhD students, enhancing their self-efficacy and identity development. Remich et al. (2016) examined how women manage gender-related challenges in academia, emphasizing the need for mentorship that supports self-efficacy and identity. Branchaw, Butz et al. (2020) validated the Entering Research Learning Assessment as an effective tool for tracking self-efficacy and identity development, while Branchaw, Guerrero et al. (2020) demonstrated the effectiveness of customizable training programs in supporting these areas. Together, these studies highlight the critical role of mentorship, structured training programs, and assessment tools in fostering researchers' career advancement, self-efficacy, and identity development. They underscore the need for supportive, tailored, and inclusive mentorship practices to promote professional growth and success.

Theme 5: Research and Evaluation in Mentorship

Assessment and metrics are essential for evaluating the effectiveness of clinical translational mentorship programs. Day et al. (2023) highlighted the use of tailored assessment tools to measure outcomes such as mentees' confidence and skills. Pimple (2001) and Olson (2010) advocated for systematic approaches and robust metrics aligned with program goals for assessing mentorship's impact on research ethics and practices. Sorkness et al. (2019) emphasized the need for varied assessment tools to evaluate career progression and research productivity in clinical translational career development programs. Jacob et al. (2020) argued for combining self-reported and objective metrics to capture mentorship's nuanced effects. Clement et al. (2020) and McLaughlin et al. (2022) stressed the importance of standardized and validated metrics for assessing academic readiness and postgraduate development. These studies underscore the importance of aligning assessment tools with program goals, using qualitative and quantitative measures, and incorporating continuous feedback.

Program evaluation and impact assessment are critical for understanding mentorship programs' effectiveness. Feldman et al. (2012) demonstrated that structured mentor development programs significantly improve mentoring skills. Scientia (2019) highlighted the benefit of mentor hierarchies for enhancing overall program effectiveness through continuous mentor support. Weber-Main et al. (2019) showed that hybrid learning approaches can effectively improve mentoring practices. Di Frances et al. (2020) found that mentor training programs positively influence mentor-mentee relationships and satisfaction. Trejo et al. (2022) emphasized the value of supportive mentorship networks and system-wide initiatives for improving mentoring practices and institutional climate. McGee et al. (2023) advocated for mixed-methods approaches to capture comprehensive mentorship outcomes. These studies highlight the importance of robust evaluation frameworks, continuous feedback, and varied assessment methods to ensure effective mentorship programs.

Discussion

Situating the findings from our scoping review into broader conceptual frameworks on mentorship programs may provide a roadmap for understanding how institutional and structural practices can be enhanced to foster clinical translational career development. Overall, the challenges highlighted in this review demonstrate the multifaceted dimensions of mentor training and development, emphasizing mentorship's critical role in fostering professional growth, academic success, and inclusive research environments. The various themes and sub-themes examined provide a holistic understanding of the strategies, frameworks, and outcomes that define effective mentorship.

The review began with the Effectiveness of Competency-Based Training theme, highlighting the essential skills and structured programs necessary for mentors to support their mentees effectively. Several groups contributed to establishing key competencies that should be included in mentorship training: consistent meetings, set and communicate expectations, provide opportunities for career development, set research goals, and discuss personal and professional life balance (see Supplementary Table 1 in the Appendix). The Mentor and Mentee Relationship Dynamics section described the importance of understanding interpersonal interactions and mutual influences in shaping professional growth. This theme highlighted the need for fostering supportive and effective relationships.

Mentorship Programs and Initiatives examined the development and implementation of both traditional and virtual mentorship programs, providing insights into the design, execution, and evaluation of these initiatives. The emergence of Virtual and Online Mentoring as a vital component of mentorship programs reflects the evolving nature of mentorship in the digital age.

In the realm of Career Development and Research Training, the sub-themes of Career Advancement and Success and Self-Efficacy and Identity Development illustrated the profound impact of mentorship on career trajectories and personal growth. These sections emphasized how effective mentorship can significantly enhance mentees' confidence, professional identity, and long-term success. The theme of Research and Evaluation in Mentorship focused on Assessment and Metrics and Program Evaluation and Impact, highlighting the importance of rigorous evaluation to ensure mentorship programs' effectiveness and sustainability. This evaluation is crucial for continuous improvement and adapting mentorship practices to meet evolving needs. Lastly, Health Equity and Community Engagement addressed the broader societal implications of mentorship. The sub-themes of Addressing Health Disparities and Community-Engaged Research demonstrated how mentorship can advance public health goals and foster community well-being.

There are several limitations to this study. One limitation of the review was that many studies included were not consistent in reporting the target population's demographic data, making it difficult to examine and report on any relationship between the target population and mentorship practices. In addition, many of the recommendations reported in the review are specific to the nature and context of the research topic and might not be generalizable to all forms of clinical translational research career development. Several studies reported on potential recommendations that might advance mentorship practices and programs; however, investigators may or may not have tested or implemented these recommendations in their study settings. Additionally, variation in study rigor, design, and outcome reporting limited the ability to directly compare effect sizes or weigh findings quantitatively across studies. Future studies can implement these recommendations to document if and how they might work across different mentorship settings and with different program partners.

Currently, a major gap exists in the lack of standardized, verified tools that measure the specific competencies required for mentorship in this field. Evidence-based strategies will need to guide the creation and validation of these tools, ensuring their alignment with the essential characteristics of clinical translation. This will involve comprehensive stakeholder engagement to pinpoint core competencies, as well as pilot testing to evaluate the tool’s effectiveness and applicability. Addressing this critical gap is essential for fostering evidence-based, self-reflective practices that enhance both the mentoring process and the broader goals of translational research.

Integrated Implications for Mentorship Practice

The interconnected nature of the five identified themes—competency-based mentorship, cultural responsiveness, evidence-based curricula, personal development, and evaluation—suggests the need for an integrated framework. While competency-based mentorship emphasizes structured skill-building, cultural responsiveness adds necessary adaptability, creating a dynamic interplay between structure and flexibility. Institutions should design mentorship training that is both standardized (e.g., through core competencies) and responsive to individual mentee needs.

Mentorship program developers may benefit from synthesizing overlapping goals. For example, continuous feedback (Theme 5) enhances both professional development (Theme 4) and cultural awareness (Theme 2). Similarly, evidence-based tools (Theme 3) can be adapted to measure outcomes related to both research productivity and mentee identity formation. This suggests that mentorship is not a linear process but a matrix of reinforcing strategies. Figure 2 summarizes these intersections and offers a conceptual roadmap for future program design and implementation.

Research Administration and Policy Relevance

While this review primarily focused on mentorship for researchers and faculty, it is important to also consider research administrators—an often-overlooked group in mentorship planning. Many of the mentorship competencies, training structures, and evaluation approaches identified in this review are directly transferable to research administrators working in clinical trials and translational research environments. Administrators face unique challenges that require mentorship in compliance, funding strategy, data governance, and institutional change management. Their career trajectories may not follow academic publishing norms, necessitating tailored career development support. Moreover, recent federal initiatives—such as NIH's updated cultural mandates and NCATS's emphasis on workforce sustainability—require mentorship approaches that adapt to shifting policy contexts. These developments highlight the need for mentorship programs that can align with institutional strategy while fostering inclusion across varied professional roles in translational science.

Actionable Recommendations for Mentorship Implementation

To translate this review’s findings into practical strategies, we propose five actionable recommendations. First, mentorship programs should integrate competency-based training approaches. This means blending structured skill-building with cultural humility and inclusive practices to meet the needs of mentees. Second, institutions should institutionalize feedback and evaluation mechanisms using validated tools like the MCA-21. These tools support continuous improvement by providing mentors and mentees with actionable insights. Third, mentorship frameworks must also support research administrators, who play essential roles in compliance, policy, and operations. Mentorship tailored to their career pathways ensures institutional alignment and long-term workforce sustainability.

Figure 2. Intersections of Core Mentorship Themes

Fourth, expanding virtual mentorship infrastructure is critical. Online tools and platforms offer flexibility and accessibility for rural or early-career scholars who might otherwise face barriers to mentorship. Lastly, evaluation strategies for mentorship programs should align with federal priorities. This includes tracking metrics related to retention and productivity to ensure mentorship initiatives meet evolving policy and funding requirements. By following these five steps, institutions can build robust, inclusive, and evidence-informed mentorship systems that support a wide range of stakeholders.

Figure 3. Recommendations for Integrated Framework

Figure 3 illustrates this integrated framework, demonstrating how these five recommendations function as a cycle of continuous improvement and inclusion. At the center is the institutional commitment to mentorship. Surrounding this core are five connected pillars: (1) competency-based training, (2) continuous feedback mechanisms, (3) inclusive support for administrators, (4) virtual infrastructure for accessibility, and (5) alignment with evolving policy and funding priorities. These interconnected elements promote equity, sustainability, and impact.

In conclusion, findings from our study suggest the vital role of mentorship in professional and academic development. Effective mentor training and development programs are essential for equipping mentors with the necessary skills, fostering supportive relationships, and ensuring continuous improvement through rigorous evaluation. By understanding and implementing these key elements, institutions can cultivate a culture of mentorship that supports the growth and success of both mentors and their trainees, ultimately advancing both individual and societal goals.

Author's Note

The work presented does not involve human subjects or animal research. There is no relevant conflict of interest on the part of all authors contributing to this manuscript.

Holly R. Zink, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Jennifer Goldman, MD
Children’s Mercy Kansas City

Matthew W. Mosconi, PhD
The University of Kansas

Jacob Sosnoff, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Lisa M. Harlan-Williams, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Nikki Nollen, PhD
University of Kansas Medical Center

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Holly R. Zink, Frontiers Clinical & Translational Science Institute, 4330 Shawnee Mission Parkway, Mail Stop 7003, Fairway, Kansas 66205, (913) 588-0580, hzink2@kumc.edu.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a CTSA grant from NCATS awarded to the University of Kansas for Frontiers: University of Kansas Clinical and Translational Science Institute (# UL1TR002366, #KL2TR002367, and #TL1TR002368). The contents are solely the authors' responsibility and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH or NCATS.

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Byars-Winston, A., Gutierrez, B., Topp, S., & Carnes, M. (2011). Integrating theory and practice to increase scientific workforce diversity: A framework for career development in graduate research training. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 10(4), 357-367. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10-12-0145

Cheng, T. L., & Hackworth, J. M. (2021). The "Cs" of mentoring: Using Adult Learning Theory and the right mentors to position early-career investigators for success. The Journal of Pediatrics, 238, 6-8.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.03.023

Clement, L., Dorman, J. B., & McGee, R. (2020). The Academic Career Readiness Assessment: Clarifying hiring and training expectations for future biomedical life sciences faculty. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 19(2), ar22. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-11-0235

Day, H. D., Benjamin, E. J., Lamba, S., Norris, K. C., Pfund, C., & Soto, G. M. L. (2023). Fostering success and promoting professional development of clinician educator mentees: A workshop for mentors. MedEdPORTAL, 19, 11321. https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11321

Di Frances, C. D., Childs, E., Fetterman, J. L., Villanti, A. C., Stanton, C. A., Russo, A. R., Hirsch, G. A., Solis, A. C., & Benjamin, E. J. (2020). Implementing and evaluating a mentor training to improve support for early-career scholars in tobacco regulatory science. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 22(6), 1041-1045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntz083

Ellinas, E. H., Kaljo, K., Patitucci, T. N., Novalija, J., Byars-Winston, A., & Fouad, N. A. (2019). No room to “lean in”: A qualitative study on gendered barriers to promotion and leadership. Journal of Women's Health, 28(3), 393-402. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2018.7252

Estape, E. S., Quarshie, A., Segarra, B., San Martin, M., Ríos, R., Martínez, K., Ali, J., Nwagwu, U., Ofili, E., & Pemu, P. (2018). Promoting diversity in the clinical and translational research workforce. Journal of the National Medical Association, 110(6), 598-605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnma.2018.03.010

Estrada, M., Burnett, M., Campbell, A. G., Campbell, P. B., Denetclaw, W. F., Gutiérrez, C. G., Hurtado, S., John, G. H., Matsui, J., McGee, R., Okpodu, C. M., Robinson, T. J., Summers, M. F., Werner-Washburne, M., & Zavala, M. (2016). Improving underrepresented minority student persistence in STEM. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 15(3), es5. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-01-0038

Feldman, M. D., Steinauer, J. E., Khalili, M., Huang, L., Kahn, J. S., Lee, K. A., Creasman, J., & Brown, J. S. (2012). A mentor development program for clinical translational science faculty leads to sustained, improved confidence in mentoring skills. Clinical and Translational Science, 5(4), 362-367. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-8062.2012.00419.x

Fleming, M., House, S., Shewakramani, V., Yu, L., Garbutt, J., McGee, R., Kroenke, K., Abedin, Z., & Rubio, D. M. (2013). The Mentoring Competency Assessment: Validation of a new instrument to evaluate skills of research mentors. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 88(7), 1002-1008. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318295e298

Guerrero, L. R., Ho, J., Christie, C., Harwood, E., Pfund, C., Seeman, T., McCreath, H., & Wallace, S. P. (2017). Using collaborative approaches with a multi-method, multi-site, multi-target intervention: Evaluating the National Research Mentoring Network. BMC Proceedings, 11(12), 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12919-017-0085-6

Hall, M., Engler, J., Hemming, J., Alema-Mensah, E., Baez, A., Lawson, K., Quarshie, A., Stiles, J., Pemu, P., Thompson, W., Paulsen, D., Smith, A., & Ofili, E. (2018). Using a virtual community (the Health Equity Learning Collaboratory) to support early-stage investigators pursuing grant funding. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11), 2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112408

Hardy, T. M., Hansen, M. J., Bahamonde, R. E., & Kimble-Hill, A. C. (2022). Insights gained into the use of individual development plans as a framework for mentoring NIH Postbaccalaureate Research Education Program (PREP) trainees. Journal of Chemical Education, 99(1), 417-427. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00503

Hemming, J., Eide, K., Harwood, E., Ali, R., Zhu, Z., & Cutler, J. (2019). Exploring professional development for new investigators underrepresented in the federally funded biomedical research workforce. Ethnicity & Disease, 29(Suppl 1), 123-128. https://doi.org/10.18865/ed.29.S1.123

House, S. C., McDaniels, M., Spencer, K. C., Utzerath, E., & Pfund, C. (2020). The NRMN Master Facilitators Initiative: Building a community of practice to broaden program implementation. Understanding Interventions, 11(1).

Huskins, W. C., Silet, K., Weber-Main, A. M., Begg, M. D., Fowler, V. G., Jr, Hamilton, J., & Fleming, M. (2011). Identifying and aligning expectations in a mentoring relationship. Clinical and Translational Science, 4(6), 439-447. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-8062.2011.00356.x

Hyun, S. H., Rogers, J. G., House, S. C., Sorkness, C. A., & Pfund, C. (2022). Revalidation of the Mentoring Competency Assessment to evaluate skills of research mentors: The MCA-21. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 6(1), e46. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2022.381

Jacob, R. R., Gacad, A., Pfund, C., Padek, M., Chambers, D. A., Kerner, J. F., Sales, A., Dobbins, M., Kumanyika, S., & Brownson, R. C. (2020). The “secret sauce” for a mentored training program: Qualitative perspectives of trainees in implementation research for cancer control. BMC Medical Education, 20(1), 237. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02153-x

Jenkins, C., Bittner Fagan, H., Passarella, J., Fournakis, N., & Burshell, D. (2020). Training academic and community investigator teams for community-engaged research: Program development, implementation, evaluation and replication. Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action, 14(2), 229-242. https://doi.org/10.1353/cpr.2020.0019

Jones, H. P., McGee, R., Weber-Main, A. M., Buchwald, D. S., Manson, S. M., Vishwanatha, J. K., & Okuyemi, K. S. (2017). Enhancing research careers: An example of a US national diversity-focused, grant-writing training and coaching experiment. BMC Proceedings, 11(Suppl 12), 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12919-017-0084-7

McDaniels, M., Pfund, C., & Barnicle, K. (2016). Creating dynamic learning communities in synchronous online courses: One approach from the Center for the Integration of Research, Teaching and Learning (CIRTL). Online Learning, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v20i1.518

McGee, R. (2016). Biomedical workforce diversity: The context for mentoring to develop talents and foster success within the ‘pipeline’. AIDS and Behavior, 20(2), 231-237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1486-7

McGee, R., & Keller, J. L. (2007). Identifying future scientists: Predicting persistence into research training. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 6(4), 316-331. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.07-04-0020

McGee, R. E., Blumberg, H. M., Ziegler, T. R., Ofotokun, I., Bhatti, P. T., Paulsen, D. F., Quarshie, A., Somanath, P. R., & Comeau, D. L. (2023). Mentor training for junior faculty: A brief evaluation report from the Georgia Clinical and Translational Science Alliance. Journal of Investigative Medicine, 71(6), 577-585. https://doi.org/10.1177/10815589231168601

McLaughlin, J. E., Layton, R. L., Watkins, P. B., Nicholas, R. A., & Brouwer, K. L. R. (2022). Developing evidence-based resources for evaluating postgraduate trainees in the biomedical sciences. PLOS ONE, 17(12), e0278297. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278297

Montgomery, B. L. (2017). Mapping a mentoring roadmap and developing a supportive network for strategic career advancement. Sage Open, 7(2), 2158244017710288. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017710288

Norris, K. C., McCreath, H. E., Hueffer, K., Aley, S. B., Chavira, G., Christie, C. A., Crespi, C. M., Crespo, C., D’Amour, G., Eagan, K., Echegoyen, L. E., Feig, A., Foroozesh, M., Guerrero, L. R., Johanson, K., Kamangar, F., Kingsford, L., LaCourse, W., Maccalla, N. M.-G., . . . Seeman, T. (2020). Baseline characteristics of the 2015-2019 first year student cohorts of the NIH Building Infrastructure Leading to Diversity (BUILD) Program. Ethnicity & Disease, 30(4), 681-692. https://doi.org/10.18865/ed.30.4.681

Olson, L. E. (2010). Developing a framework for assessing responsible conduct of research education programs. Science and Engineering Ethics, 16(1), 185-200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-010-9196-4

Pfund, C., House, S. C., Asquith, P., Fleming, M. F., Buhr, K. A., Burnham, E. L., Gilmore, J. M. E., Huskins, W. C., McGee, R., Schurr, K., Shapiro, E. D., Spencer, K. C., & Sorkness, C. A. (2014). Training mentors of clinical and translational research scholars: A randomized controlled trial. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 89(5), 774-782. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000218

Pfund, C., House, S. C., Spencer, K., Asquith, P., Carney, P., Masters, K. S., McGee, R., Shanedling, J., Vecchiarelli, S., & Fleming, M. (2013). A research mentor training curriculum for clinical and translational researchers. Clinical and Translational Science, 6(1), 26-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12009

Pfund, C., Maidl Pribbenow, C., Branchaw, J., Miller Lauffer, S., & Handelsman, J. (2006). Professional skills: The merits of training mentors. Science (New York, N.Y.), 311(5760), 473-474. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1123806

Pfund, C., Sancheznieto, F., Byars-Winston, A., Zárate, S., Black, S., Birren, B., Rogers, J., & Asai, D. J. (2022). Evaluation of a culturally responsive mentorship education program for the advisers of Howard Hughes Medical Institute Gilliam Program graduate students. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 21(3), ar50. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.21-11-0321

Pimple, K. (2001). Assessing teaching and learning in the responsible conduct of research [Background paper prepared for the Institute of Medicine (IOM) Committee on Assessing Integrity in Research Environments]. Indiana University. https://onlineethics.org/sites/onlineethics/files/2022-05/Assessing_teaching_and_learning_in_the_responsible.pdf

Remich, R., Jones, R., Wood, C. V., Campbell, P. B., & McGee, R. (2016). How women in biomedical PhD Programs manage gender consciousness as they persist toward academic research careers. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 91(8), 1119-1127. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000001253

Robinson, G. F. W. B., Schwartz, L. S., DiMeglio, L. A., Ahluwalia, J. S., & Gabrilove, J. L. (2016). Understanding career success and its contributing factors for clinical and translational investigators. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 91(4), 570-582. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000979

Rogers, J., Gong, X., Byars-Winston, A., McDaniels, M., Thayer-Hart, N., Cheng, P., Diggs-Andrews, K., Martínez-Hernández, K. J., & Pfund, C. (2022). Comparing the outcomes of face-to-face and synchronous online research mentor training using propensity score matching. CBE Life Sciences Education, 21(4), ar62. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.21-12-0332

Sancheznieto, F., & Byars-Winston, A. (2021). Value, support, and advancement: An organization’s role in faculty career intentions in academic medicine. Journal of Healthcare Leadership, 13, 267-277. https://doi.org/10.2147/JHL.S334838

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Silet, K. A., Asquith, P., & Fleming, M. F. (2010). A national survey of mentoring programs for KL2 Scholars. Clinical and Translational Science, 3(6), 299-304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-8062.2010.00237.x

Sorkness, C. A., Pfund, C., Asquith, P., & Drezner, M. K. (2013). Research mentor training: Initiatives of the University of Wisconsin Institute for Clinical and Translational Research. Clinical and Translational Science, 6(4), 256-258. https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12085

Sorkness, C. A., Scholl, L., Fair, A. M., & Umans, J. G. (2019). KL2 mentored career development programs at clinical and translational science award hubs: Practices and outcomes. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 4(1), 43-52. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2019.424

Spencer, K. C., McDaniels, M., Utzerath, E., Rogers, J. G., Sorkness, C. A., Asquith, P., & Pfund, C. (2018). Building a sustainable national infrastructure to expand research mentor training. CBE Life Sciences Education, 17(3), ar48. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.18-03-0034

Stephenson-Hunter, C., Franco, S., Martinez, A., & Strelnick, A. H. (2021). Virtual summer undergraduate mentorship program for students underrepresented in medicine yields significant increases in self-efficacy measurements during COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed methods evaluation. Health Equity, 5(1), 697-706. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2021.0060

Trejo, J., Wingard, D., Hazen, V., Bortnick, A., Hoesen, K. V., Byars-Winston, A., Pfund, C., & Reznik, V. (2022). A system-wide health sciences faculty mentor training program is associated with improved effective mentoring and institutional climate. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 6(1), e18. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2021.883

Vaughan, R., Romanick, M., Brassil, D., Kost, R., Neville-Williams, M., Gottesman, R., Devine, R., Manukonda, P., Ronning, A., O’Sullivan, B., Capili, B., Macarthur, R., Tobin, J. N., Johnson, T., Shapiro, E. D., Meagher, E., Krueger, J., Schlesinger, S., & Coller, B. S. (2021). The Rockefeller Team Science Leadership Training Program: Curriculum, standardized assessment of competencies, and impact of returning assessments. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 5(1), e165. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2021.838

Weber-Main, A. M., Shanedling, J., Kaizer, A. M., Connett, J., Lamere, M., & El-Fakahany, E. E. (2019). A randomized controlled pilot study of the University of Minnesota mentoring excellence training academy: A hybrid learning approach to research mentor training. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 3(4), 152-164. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2019.368

Williams, J. S., Walker, R. J., Burgess, K. M., Shay, L. A., Schmidt, S., Tsevat, J., Campbell, J. A., Dawson, A. Z., Ozieh, M. N., Phillips, S. A., & Egede, L. E. (2023). Mentoring strategies to support diversity in research-focused junior faculty: A scoping review. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 7(1), e21. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2022.474

Williams, S. N., Thakore, B. K., & McGee, R. (2016). Career coaches as a source of vicarious learning for racial and ethnic minority PhD students in the biomedical sciences: A qualitative study. PLOS ONE, 11(7), e0160038. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160038

Zakaras, J. M., Sarkar, U., Bibbins-Domingo, K., & Mangurian, C. V. (2021). Not just surviving, but thriving: Overcoming barriers to career advancement for women junior faculty clinician-researchers. Academic Psychiatry, 45(2), 180-184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-020-01361-3

Appendix

Supplementary Table 1

Key Attributes of the Identified Studies